In The Five Elements of Effective Thinking, Edward B. Burger and Michael Starbird explain that thinking is the source of all improvement and achievement, and that when you learn to think effectively, you can maximize these things. They describe the processes involved in thinking effectively and how this type of thinking can improve your life in the classroom, in the workplace, and in life in general.
Burger and Starbird are renowned mathematicians and college professors as well as award-winning authors and educators. Together, they have written two other books about the application of mathematics in thinking and humor, The Heart of Mathematics: An Invitation to Effective Thinking and Coincidences, Chaos, and All That Math Jazz.
In this book, Burger and Starbird break down the process of effective thinking into elements aligned with the natural elements identified by the ancient Greeks: earth, fire, air, and water. The authors then add a fifth element to sum up the results of the previous four: change.
We'll explore each of these elements in turn, looking at how the authors advise you to use them as a framework for effective thinking. We'll also explore how their theories compare to those of some other experts and to different pedagogical methods related to cognition in general.
(Shortform note: Burger and Starbird aren’t the first modern thinkers to use the Greek elements as a basis for their theories: Psychologist Carl Jung identified four personality types that echoed them, and others link them to our moods and natural abilities. Further, the Greeks were just one of many cultures that identified four basic elements—among others, ancient Chinese, Indian, and Jews also pointed to elements that mirrored the Greeks’, often using them to explain our inner psyches as well as the physical world.)
The first element the authors discuss is earth, which they say represents the foundation of ideas that will serve as the basis for your thinking. They argue that to think effectively, you must base your thinking on a deep understanding of your topic or problem. We all have a lot of knowledge that we take for granted, but by exploring this knowledge as thoroughly as possible, we open our minds to the greater possibilities it offers. This section explores what it means to learn deeply and how to maintain a firm foundation of learning.
(Shortform note: The authors tend to define “effective thinking” through the processes detailed in their book rather than stating an explicit definition. But we can infer that “effective thinking” is similar or equivalent to the more commonly understood term “critical thinking,” which is an active process of thinking that involves understanding and applying the various levels of cognition to enhance one’s understanding.)
The authors discuss two ways you can approach fundamentals that can help you create a firm foundation:
Understanding deeply is not simply knowing or not knowing facts; it’s about understanding the “why” of those facts. Therefore, the authors advise that you don’t just learn what the facts are but instead learn about the facts. Understand their background, the connections between them, and their implications.
For example, if you’re learning karate, your instructor might tell you to pivot your feet in the direction of your punches. Knowing this fact is helpful, but not as beneficial as understanding the “why” of that fact: that turning your foot in the direction of your punch allows you to put your whole body’s strength into the strike instead of just the strength of your arm.
(Shortform note: It may be more difficult to apply the principles of effective thinking to physical activities since we associate those more with athletic ability than with thought, but we have to learn how to move our bodies just as we have to learn everything else. Thinking effectively about your movement—understanding why you should move your body this way instead of that way—could help you improve your form and avoid injury when performing physical tasks.)
Asking “Why Is This True?”
Other education experts also emphasize the necessity of learning beyond the facts, suggesting that many of today’s students can succeed in the classroom without actually understanding the concepts they’re studying. This leads to uninformed citizens who, though they may have a lot of knowledge, are unable to apply that knowledge to the real world. Some of these experts’ recommendations involve using questioning to deepen that understanding, just as the authors suggest later in this book.
Others have also pointed out that our definition of “fact” is not as universal or concrete as we might think. While most would agree that a fact is something that can be proven, many “facts” are also personal interpretations or beliefs. For example, it might be a fact that the sun rises in the east (provably true) but a person might also believe as a “fact” that certain political policies are better than others (personal belief). Exploring the “why” behind the facts we believe are true might provide insight into how accurate these facts are and whether we need to recategorize them as myths.
The authors write that you shouldn’t try to tackle complex issues until you’ve thoroughly mastered the fundamentals. Understanding smaller, more basic aspects of a problem will allow you to understand more complex issues.
Thus, they advise that when approaching a complex problem, you revisit the basic skills and knowledge base needed to master it. Mastering basic skills can help you manage a situation when circumstances change. When you come upon a problem that proves more challenging than you anticipated, go back and find the fundamental knowledge or skills that will help you proceed in your new situation. For example, a chef trying to perfect an advanced dish might revisit a simple but beloved recipe to find insights on what they could do better.
(Shortform note: Revisiting the basics before you start on your complex problem can prompt your brain to process that information more quickly thanks to a phenomenon called priming. This is when the brain shows increased responsiveness to certain stimuli when given prior stimulation that relates to the same information or thought processes.)
Learning Framework
Burger and Starbird's theories of learning align in many ways with other psychologists' insights. For example, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom devised a classification method, Bloom's Taxonomy, outlining how our brains absorb knowledge, much of which corresponds to Burger and Starbird’s theories. Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy describes four different levels of learning:
Factual knowledge (understanding discrete facts about an idea)
Conceptual knowledge (understanding the connections between the facts that comprise the whole of the idea)
Procedural knowledge (understanding how to apply factual and conceptual knowledge to perform a task related to the idea)
Metacognitive knowledge (understanding and reflecting on the process of your learning)
Burger and Starbird’s earth classification corresponds strongly with Bloom’s first three groups here: factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge, as both classification systems emphasize the importance of knowing basic facts and the relationships between them.
Bloom’s fourth category listed above correlates with much of the ideas that Burger and Starbird outline in their other categories, as they move from understanding the facts themselves to understanding the processes of learning behind them.
The second element the authors discuss is fire, which they say represents embracing failure as a learning tool. Once you’ve established a firm foundation of knowledge, you can begin expanding that knowledge by learning from failure, and in doing so, advancing your thinking through trial and error.
The authors note that when you fail at solving a problem, you can set yourself up for success next time if you analyze why you failed and think about what you can do to prevent failure in the future. In this section, we'll explore the authors' advice on how to manage mistakes. We'll look specifically at their recommendations to:
(Shortform note: The concept of learning by failing aligns with the theory of trial and error learning outlined in 1913 by Edward Lee Thorndike, who suggested that all learning occurs when the learner makes mistake after mistake until they finally hit on the right solution. Thorndike's theory implies a randomness to the process, contrasting with Burger and Starbird's theories, which emphasize that you should reflect on your failures in order to direct your next attempt.)
The authors argue that failure is a powerful teaching tool and a vital part of achieving your goal. Don’t view mistakes as hindrances but instead as opportunities for growth. A mistake gives you a specific thing to address: Why was this wrong?
They note that the ability to do something right takes hard work, study, and practice, and you shouldn’t expect yourself to do it right immediately. If you do, you’ll be more likely to give up and not achieve your goal. For example, if two students take a test and fail, the student who makes an effort to understand what they got wrong and why will learn a lot more than the student who gives up on trying because they felt like they should have gotten it right the first time.
(Shortform note: Much of the way we view failure is a result of how we were taught to view it as children. Berating your child for making a mistake will cause them to want to avoid making mistakes as much as possible and give them a negative association with failure, which will then hinder their growth.)
The authors write that there are some specific techniques you can employ to prevent mistakes from stopping your progress:
1. Take the first step in solving your problem, even if that step is wrong. Getting started can be the hardest part when you don’t feel like you know what you’re doing. You may feel lost as to where to begin. When you accept that you'll make mistakes, you're more likely to start an intimidating project that you may have been putting off out of a fear of failure.
(Shortform note: In The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck, Mark Manson notes that failure can be physically painful, which is one reason people hesitate to start projects that may not be successful. Like Burger and Starbird, Manson also emphasizes the importance of taking that first step, even if it’s a misstep, and adds that the pain you may experience is an essential part of learning.)
2. When you make a mistake, don’t let it block your progress. Identify what went wrong and how to fix it. If you can’t, and the problem seems overwhelming, let it go and work on an easier problem that you feel you can learn from. Don’t fixate so heavily on figuring out a mistake you don’t understand to the point that it impedes your progress.
(Shortform note: Our brains’ physiology works against us in this regard. Our brains work harder and take longer to process negative information than to process positive information, causing the negative information to leave a stronger impression. To avoid becoming overly fixated on our failures, experts recommend removing our emotional attachments to them and allowing the failure to teach us without dwelling on it excessively.)
3. Don’t beat yourself up. Understand that experiencing failure doesn’t make you a failure; it just makes you human. If you make a mistake that leads to success, don’t penalize yourself. Recognize that it was an important step in your development and that it will benefit you in the future.
In addition, the authors stress that you shouldn’t beat other people up for their mistakes either. Learning should be rewarded, not punished. For example, they suggest that if a student makes an attempt on a test and gets a low grade but shows great improvement in their final exam, it might be productive to allow that final grade to take the place of that early low grade, demonstrating to the student that learning, not immediate mastery, is the goal.
(Shortform note: Burger has spoken and written about “math phobia,” which he feels is the result of negative or traumatic experiences in mathematics education. Receiving a failing grade is undeniably discouraging, and the idea that this could cause a “phobia” of the subject fits with the authors’ suggestion that helping a student frame a mistake as an opportunity will make them view the subject more positively. Choosing to frame your own mistakes positively instead of chiding yourself can have a similar effect and prevent you from developing an aversion to the subject.)
4. Learn from other people’s mistakes. You can also look beyond your current predicament to gain insight from others’ work. Has someone else already tried to solve this problem and failed? What mistakes did they make that you can learn from (so you can skip making those mistakes yourself)?
(Shortform note: Some mistakes can have dire consequences, especially when learning on the job. A brain surgeon doing an operation might make a mistake that could teach them a lot, but the costs could be fatal. In situations with such high stakes, it would be particularly vital to learn from others’ mistakes as much as possible before making an attempt yourself.)
Sometimes you’ll find yourself progressing quickly with few noticeable mistakes. The authors advise that when that happens, you should seek out mistakes to create your own learning experiences. They point out that companies will do stress tests on their products, looking for what it takes to break what they’ve made. Apply this to your own thinking. Ask yourself: “What would it take to disprove this idea? What flaws can I expose in my understanding?”
(Shortform note: Studies have shown that our own expertise can work against us if we become too fixed on it. If we have found a way of doing something that works, we often have a hard time letting go of that, even if we run into a situation where a different method would work better than the one we’re familiar with. Feeling like we already know how to do something makes us less likely to see other, potentially better solutions. Experts recommend taking on a “beginner’s mindset,” from the Buddhist concept of shoshin. Approaching a topic as if we have no expertise, even if we have plenty, can give us greater insights than if we relied on our preconceived understanding.)
The authors suggest some techniques that can help you create your own mistakes and learning experiences:
1. Make bad leaps in logic or unfeasible goals. Consider what you would do if you had no limits on what you could do, and see if that leads you to a more immediate insight. For example, a Spanish teacher might imagine that with no restraints, they might take their students to Spain, Mexico, or another Spanish-speaking country to immerse their students in the language. That’s not something most public school teachers can accomplish, but it might lead to the idea of taking the students to a local business run by native Spanish speakers and letting the students practice that way.
(Shortform note: In The 10X Rule, Grant Cardone agrees that you should set overly ambitious goals, suggesting that small goals are often not exciting enough to motivate a person to work hard to achieve them. He advises setting goals that are 10 times greater than the standard and then working 10 times harder to reach those goals.)
2. Make a wild exaggeration of your idea. Does this exaggeration reflect any of the same issues that your original problem poses? For example, say you run a company that produces trampolines. Your products are made for humans, but just for fun, imagine that an elephant uses one. What happens to the trampoline? Could that happen if a human were to use it? Does the exaggeration reveal a specific structural flaw that could be fixed to make the product better overall?
(Shortform note: While making mistakes can be educational, keep in mind that you should avoid practicing that mistake, particularly when it comes to performing tasks or skills. If you’re learning a new song on the piano and you hit a wrong note in bar 14, you can learn from that mistake, but the next time you play the song you should be able to play bar 14 correctly. If you note the mistake but just continue playing, you're not learning from the mistake, you're learning to make the mistake every time you do it.)
The authors note that even when a mistake reveals no insight into your current problem, it can still be useful; it might be the solution to a completely different problem than the one at hand. Ask yourself: “Did my mistakes present any insight on other problems separate from the one I’m focusing on?”
They give an example of an employee at 3M who was trying to create a very strong adhesive but ended up creating one so weak that it could be removed from an object without even peeling off the adhesive. A complete failure with regard to his goal at the time. But later, when another scientist at the company was trying to figure out a way to mark pages in a book without causing any damage, this adhesive turned out to be the perfect thing to apply to a small slip of paper, resulting in the invention of the Post-it note. Had they scrapped the original idea entirely and never revisited it, they would have lost out on a product that is now so popular you can find it in almost any office.
Thinking Differently
One way to cultivate the ability to look past your current problem and see if your solution may have greater or other applications could be to purposefully change your mind’s focus. In A Mind For Numbers, Barbara Oakley describes two types of “modes” in which the brain functions. “Focused mode” is when your brain is actively concentrating on a specific thing, whereas “diffuse mode” is when your brain is not actively concentrating and is instead allowed to wander. If you’ve come up with a potential solution for a problem while in focused mode, but the solution proves ineffective, allowing your mind to enter diffuse mode may lead you to see applications for that solution beyond what you were previously focused on.
Other experts have conceived of these modes in other ways. In Hyperfocus, Chris Bailey characterizes them as “hyperfocus” and “scatterfocus.” He suggests that hyperfocus is the ideal mode for productivity, while scatterfocus is ideal for creativity.
In the case of the Post-it note example, the employee who first came up with the adhesive was likely in focused or hyperfocus mode, actively trying to produce a product to solve a specific problem. However, the employee who later thought to use this adhesive to create the Post-it note took this already-existing idea and came up with a creative application for it beyond its original intended purpose. This reflects diffuse or scatterfocus mode.
Both of these theories draw from neuroscience, with the concepts of “diffuse mode” and “scatterfocus” relating to the engagement of the brain’s default network. This network is made up of specific portions of the brain that are more active when the brain is not actively focused on any idea or task.
The third element the authors discuss is air, which they say represents the constant questioning of what you know and what you’re learning. The authors recommend that you ask plenty of questions to challenge your current understanding of a topic. This will help you strengthen your foundational knowledge because it expands your thinking, opening you to new insights about what you already know (or think you know). This section explores how you can use questions to expose flaws in your current understanding, focus your attention on areas of misunderstanding, and guide your thinking toward your next most important idea.
(Shortform note: The principles conveyed in the “air” section reflect many of the same concepts as Inquiry-Based Instruction, which Michael Starbird is a well-known proponent of. Inquiry-Based Instruction emphasizes the value of questioning as a method of learning about a subject. This style of instruction involves giving the student agency over their own learning while the teacher guides that learning through open-ended questions or problems, which students then investigate through questions of their own.)
As we learned in the “earth” section, you can always deepen your understanding of a topic. One way to do this is to expose flaws in logic or knowledge by asking questions. Just because you already know the answer to a problem doesn’t mean you shouldn’t still ask questions or explore it further by asking a “what if” question. This question can show where the gaps in your understanding are.
(Shortform note: Some educators have suggested that “what if” questions are just one of several kinds of questions you can ask as you seek solutions. “What if” questions explore the myriad directions or possibilities for this information, while “why” questions establish the underlying information and “how might” questions follow through on the “what if” questions to see what solutions can be found.)
Similarly, just because you think you’re supposed to know the right answer to a problem doesn’t mean you shouldn’t ask questions. Being an expert on something means understanding that there are no stupid questions, or no questions not worth asking. To get you into the mindset of asking questions, the authors recommend that you:
(Shortform note: “Looking dumb” is not the only fear that keeps us from asking questions. Another, sometimes bigger, fear is considering that we might have been wrong about something and having to acknowledge it—we often find it easier to believe we’re correct rather than to ask questions that show that we’re not. This then leads to cognitive dissonance, which causes stress and inhibits growth and learning.)
One technique the authors suggest to help you think of questions is to imagine yourself teaching the idea to someone else. What questions might they ask? Do you know how to answer them? If not, then your understanding is lacking.
(Shortform note: Learning by teaching is an instructional method frequently used in many classrooms. Students may be given a topic and then be tasked with teaching this topic to another student or to the rest of the class. This method is based on the principle of the “protégé effect,” which describes how the cognitive and metacognitive processes involved in teaching something strengthen the “teacher’s” understanding of it.)
The authors emphasize that your view on a subject will have bias. Use questions to identify that bias and eliminate it.
(Shortform note: In addition to addressing it here in “air,” the authors discuss bias in the “earth” section as well, leading the idea to be a little disjointed in its treatment in the book. We have included it only in “air” for the sake of clarity and focus.)
The authors recommend the following techniques to help you identify your biases:
1. Look for bias in your perspective, not just your argument. Reverse your beliefs and explore them. How would someone with the opposite perspective view this issue?
For example, say you’re an astrobiologist studying the viability of other planets for sustaining life. If you already believe there’s no life beyond Earth, that may affect the way you carry out your research and potentially impede your progress. Instead, decide one day that life beyond Earth does exist, and spend some time researching from that perspective. You may find that the opposing belief has more credibility than you once thought, or, at the very least, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of your original belief.
2. Watch out for authority bias. Don’t assume things are true just because that’s what you’ve been told.
The authors give the example of Aristotle claiming that objects of different weights will fall at different speeds and how that claim was widely accepted as true for over a millennium. Galileo Galilei famously decided to put this idea to the test and discovered that objects fall at the same velocity regardless of weight.
In doing so, he identified a bias in his foundational understanding: a claim he only believed because an authority had passed down that knowledge. When he questioned that claim and decided to test it for himself, he was able to fix a broken piece of his foundation.
Authority Bias
The authors don’t explicitly use the term authority bias, but that is the term for the tendency to believe information we receive from a source that we view as an authority. This type of bias can have far greater consequences than perpetuating misconceptions about gravity.
Stanley Milgram is well-known for his experiment that demonstrated the effect of authority bias on our behavior. His intention was to study how humans were able to be convinced to carry out atrocities such as The Holocaust. The results demonstrated that a majority of participants obeyed orders to cause another person physical pain because they were told to do so by someone who seemed like an authority.
This concept mirrors the ideas conveyed in the writings of Hannah Arendt, who coined the phrase “the banality of evil.” Arendt argued that most of the people who carried out the Holocaust were not psychopaths or people otherwise unbothered by human suffering, but were people who failed to examine and question the things they were being told to do by authority figures. She suggests that it is a lack of critical thinking that leads to such atrocities.
Based on this, it seems logical that practicing a method of thinking that would dismantle this type of bias could not only benefit the individual in the way that Burger and Starbird describe, but could also serve to prevent large-scale destructive or harmful behavior such as war and genocide.
Still, while Galileo’s method may have been ideal, most of us don’t have the resources to personally test every single piece of information we’re given. Especially since the internet has exploded our ability to share ideas, a vital tool in navigating all this information is being able to assess the reliability of a source of information. Questioning is perhaps the best way to accomplish this, and experts offer some specific methods of questioning to suss out how much credence you should put in a particular source. They specifically recommend that you assess:
Whether a source is offering information that is up-to-date
Whether it relates to what you’re trying to learn about
What expertise the source has on the matter
Where the source got its information
What reason the source had to put this information out there
Sometimes a source is not only biased but is also engaging in deliberate misinformation to achieve personal or political goals. This type of misinformation or propaganda often appeals to our emotions in order to manipulate us and can often be identified using the same methods listed above.
Questioning is more productive when it’s focused in the right direction. Identifying the essence of what you’re trying to learn gives you a foundation from which to continue your exploration.
Therefore, the authors advise that you try to find the most effective questions. They should be clear and actionable, demonstrate where you need to put your focus, and identify the root of what you’re trying to learn.
This will help you reveal what kind of misunderstanding you’re facing. Is it a problem you don’t know the answer to, or do you even know what problem you’re trying to address?
(Shortform note: In Awaken the Giant Within, Tony Robbins suggests that the questions you ask yourself should generally be positive and empowering to avoid discouraging your progress. Asking yourself “what am I doing wrong?” might show you where you need to focus, but it will also focus your attention on the negative. Asking “what can I do better?” is more empowering, clear, and actionable, but you may find that you can’t get to this question without first asking what you're doing wrong. The trick may be to find the answer to this as quickly as possible without dwelling on it so you can then move on to the positive “what can I do better?”)
To make sure you’re focusing on the right problem, the authors recommend that you chip away the excess information distracting you from the main point.
For example, if you’re struggling to write an essay on the causes of The French Revolutionary War, ask yourself productive questions about why you’re struggling. “What is war?” won’t be a productive question. It’s too vague and gives you no indication of where to start. Instead, try one that addresses the root of your problem and gives you a clear starting point: “What motivated the citizens of France to revolt?” Now you know that you need to find 1) what caused them to be unhappy, and 2) what they thought they could gain by starting a revolution.
The fourth element the authors discuss is water, which they say represents the progression of ideas. When you understand where an idea came from, you’ll better understand the idea in the present and where it could go in the future. Ideas are often taught outside of the context of their origins, making it seem like they sprang up out of nowhere, but the formation of a new idea is a cumulative process that never really ends. Ideas tend to be formed through the processes detailed in earth, fire, and air. This section discusses how understanding the evolution of an idea can help you approach a project more effectively, and how you can use that understanding to guide your thinking in the future.
“Stealing” Ideas
When we view ideas as organic epiphanies unrelated to other ideas before them, we end up becoming possessive over our ideas. Seeing someone get credit for an idea that you feel was yours, or that you think you thought of first, can be very frustrating and often leads to lawsuits in the professional and entertainment world. An idea can seem so personal and original to us that it’s difficult to conceive of the possibility that someone else could have had the exact same idea, but this happens surprisingly often.
Viewing ideas this way is a feature of the heroic theory of invention, which is the belief that great ideas come directly from brilliant creators and innovators. This worldview suggests that people who come up with great ideas deserve high acclaim for their accomplishments specifically based on the assumption that that idea would never have existed if that specific person hadn’t come up with it. If someone who holds this theory has a great idea, then sees someone else express that same idea, they may naturally conclude that it was stolen from them.
A common belief is that Thomas Edison, a famed inventor, actually stole many of his ideas from Nikola Tesla, though there is little historical evidence to back that up. But the belief behind this “feud” between the two inventors relies on the assumption that their ideas were so unique and original that no one else could have come up with them. There is a sort of hero worship surrounding these and other great minds that tends to ignore the foundational ideas on which these innovations were built.
This is contrasted with the theory of multiple discovery, which acknowledges the ways in which ideas build upon each other to lead to great insight or innovation. The theory of multiple discovery explains that because of cumulative knowledge building, people who have never shared their ideas with each other may come up with the same ideas at the same time, without either party having “stolen” anything from the other.
According to Burger and Starbird, knowing the foundation from which an idea developed gives you a better understanding of the idea in the present. No idea exists in a vacuum, and studying how an idea came about can make your foundational knowledge sturdier.
Further, when you understand how ideas develop and realize that new insights don’t appear out of nowhere, it’s easier to take things step by step. You can better manage your expectations and put less pressure on yourself to reinvent the wheel or magically spawn a huge, groundbreaking idea.
For example, if you view “Step #1” as “Invent a new type of video game console,” you’ll have a much harder time getting started than if you viewed it as “Learn how modern consoles were invented.”
(Shortform note: In Smarter Faster Better, Charles Duhigg suggests innovating by combining multiple old ideas into new ones. He offers this as a middle point between simply using an old idea by itself and creating a brand new idea out of thin air. Using the old ideas as a starting point makes the task less daunting, and combining them creates new ideas from the old.)
Once you understand the past behind your idea, you can use that knowledge to “solve” your problem in the present, but the story doesn’t end with the “solution.” According to the authors, effective thinking develops an idea past the point at which it seems to be perfected. Once you’ve overcome a problem, look for new ways to use the solution, whether in continuation of your current topic or in a different field entirely.
Think several steps ahead of where you are now. Consider how the idea you’re working on might lead to things that are currently unheard of. For example, if you went back in time to the year 1800 and showed someone a photograph, they’d be flabbergasted and would dubiously ask you what artist was able to paint something so highly detailed. Fast forward 220 years and we have managed to portray moving images that look so realistic it feels like you’re seeing them in person. Where might our photo and video technology be in another two centuries?
(Shortform note: While it’s important to consider the potential future of your ideas, Duhigg points out in Smarter Faster Better that you also run the risk of becoming so attached to your current idea that you focus on pursuing it and ignore alternative ideas that may work better. If it was extremely difficult to come up with your current idea, it can be just as difficult to let that idea go and focus on another one when it seems to be the better option.)
The final element the authors discuss is change, which the authors say represents the culmination of the previous four and the realization of our goal: thinking effectively. The ideas and practices represented in earth, fire, air, and water are all means to change. The fifth element presented by the authors is fairly simple: It’s the power you gain when you learn to embody the lessons of the first four elements. This section explains how to welcome and enact change as a result of effective thinking.
(Shortform note: It’s questionable whether this should be considered an “element” since it doesn’t fit the pattern established by the previous four of demonstrating processes for thinking and veers away from the idea of the four natural elements. It may be more logical to view it as a conclusion section rather than a fifth list item.)
Be willing to change. If you’re not willing to change your mind and your thinking, then you’re closing yourself off from improvement. The purpose of thinking effectively is to make your life better, and it requires a willingness to change at every opportunity.
(Shortform note: Other authors have written about the integral link between the way we think and the change we’re able to enact in our lives. In You Are a Badass, Jen Sincero explains that our thoughts are what shape our reality and that changing our thought patterns is the only way to see the change we want in our lives and ourselves.)
Make improvement—not achievement—your goal. The authors argue that natural ability varies; not everyone is capable of the same feats, but everyone is capable of becoming better at something. You may never become a poet laureate, but you can learn how to identify different types of poetic meter.
Natural ability is also a fixed state, but thinking effectively is a practice, so it’s within your control. You can’t change your natural height, but if you practice effective thinking, you can learn how to jump higher with proper technique.
(Shortform note: In Atomic Habits, James Clear argues that natural ability is only half of what you need to achieve success in a certain field or skill, and that hard work is the other half. Anders Ericsson echoes that sentiment in Peak, and adds that once you master what you’ve been practicing, you have to again change your thinking in order to continue to improve and avoid stalling out at that level. And in his book Range, David Epstein argues that practice in one field is not as useful as gaining a wide variety of skills and that it’s important to broaden your focus in order to compete in your chosen field. All of these provide practical advice to complement the idea of using your thinking to enact change.)
Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Thinking
Both Burger and Starbird have long-running careers in academia and education, so most of their expertise comes from these fields and relates to the classroom. Their ideas are sometimes extended beyond that to apply to the workplace as well, but as they point out, thinking is the root of improvement in all facets of life.
Because of their background in the classroom, Burger and Starbird give plenty of examples of their principles being applied in those contexts, but they leave out some other contexts that also require high-level thinking, making their advice somewhat clinical. Little attention is given to things like interpersonal conflicts or other circumstances under which emotions or passions might be running high.
It’s widely accepted in education that there are numerous types of intelligence (though the specific number varies depending on your source). Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, the first such theory to be proposed and one of the most common, lists eight different types of intelligence. Some of these are inherent to the classroom setting, such as logical intelligence, and others are addressed directly in the authors’ anecdotes, such as musical intelligence.
Two types that are not addressed in the book, however, are interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. The authors don’t discuss how effective thinking can be used to resolve conflicts with peers, for example, or how it can be integrated into attempts to improve one’s emotional or mental well-being. The hope is that the reader would come away from the book with the ability to apply these principles to any situation, but the general direction of the book may not provide much guidance on how to apply these specifically to understanding and interacting with other people or understanding oneself deeply.
The book Crucial Conversations provides guidance on the optimal way to resolve interpersonal conflicts and indirectly applies some of the same principles we see in The Five Elements of Effective Thinking, such as starting with the facts, taking things step by step, asking questions, and taking action based on what you’ve learned.
Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman discusses similar issues regarding intrapersonal conflicts and growth, also addressing such aspects of effective thinking as building a knowledge base of emotional awareness, identifying and challenging our assumptions, and exploring through questioning.
Applying the principles of effective thinking will help you better understand a problem and guide your next steps in solving it. Think of a problem in your life that you’re trying to solve right now, big or small (but be specific). We’ll walk through the steps of thinking effectively about this problem to better solve it.
First, establish your foundational knowledge. What do you already know about this problem? What is its context? What are the factors contributing to it? What effect does it have on you or the world? Note any gaps you find in your knowledge.
Next, think about how you might learn through trial and error. How might you experiment with a possible solution? How might you purposefully create a mistake? (Is there an extreme situation you might apply your problem to?)
Then, ask questions: What facts might you be taking for granted? Is there a “what if” scenario you can think of?
Now, using your foundational knowledge and what you have learned from the previous question, what is the next step for this problem? How will solving this problem affect you or the world? And finally, what change will you enact to work toward solving the problem?